Exploring psychological processes underlying the relationship between sexual arousal and sexual violence

Preventing sexual violence is a societal imperative. Sexual arousal has been associated with an increased willingness to engage in sexual violence, yet the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. Identifying the psychological processes through which sexual arousal impacts sexual violence could help to inform the development of evidence-based initiatives to prevent sexual harm. Understanding why people with no history of sexual offending may start to engage in sexual violence holds particular significance for primary and secondary prevention initiatives (i.e., interventions aimed at the general public and people at risk of sexual offending, respectively). Given the potential harm associated with sexual victimization, the ability to circumvent initial incidents of sexual violence is of paramount importance for public health and safety. As such, the aim of this thesis was to elucidate some of the psychological processes through which sexual arousal impacts sexual violence in a non-forensic population. More specifically, this thesis explored sexual violence between adult peers (i.e., University students). Informed by empirical and theoretical knowledge, I chose to explore three psychological processes: state empathy (Study 1), cognitive appraisals (Studies 2 and 3), and perceived sexual intent (Study 3). I also sought to contribute to future research through methodological developments intended to address the primary limitations of past studies. Throughout this thesis, I employed a modified approach to inducing sexual arousal, which permitted the inclusion of more diverse samples (i.e., any assigned sex or sexual orientation). I began by conducting an empirical test of the theory that sexual arousal can result in temporary deficits in state empathy (Study 1). Study 1 provided the first empirical evidence linking sexual arousal and state empathy. However, exploratory analyses indicated the need to account for assigned sex, as sexual arousal appeared to hinder state empathy for males, but bolster state empathy for females. Sex-specific differences were particularly apparent for cognitive empathy (i.e., recognizing and understanding others’ emotional state). Informed by the results of Study 1, as well as a small body of existing research, I shifted focus from affective to cognitive processes. Building on past empirical work, I chose to investigate cognitive appraisals as a possible mechanism through which sexual arousal impacts sexual violence. In this context, cognitive appraisals refer to one’s evaluation of the perceived costs and benefits of engaging in sexual activity in response to a partner’s verbal sexual refusal. To facilitate this investigation, I first developed the Cognitive Appraisals of Sexual Manipulation Scale (CASMS) to capture a broader conceptualization of cognitive appraisals (Studies 2a to 2d). The results of these studies provided preliminary support for two distinct and reliable subscales measuring cognitive appraisals that could impel or inhibit sexual activity; additional research on the validity of these subscales is needed. I also tested – and found evidence to refute – an assumption that appeared to motivate the use of a statistically weaker experimental design in past research (Study 2a). Leveraging these methodological advancements, I then examined if impelling or inhibiting cognitive appraisals mediated the relationship between sexual arousal and sexual violence (Studies 2b and 3). Consistent with past research, this thesis demonstrated a positive relationship between sexual arousal and likelihood of sexual violence, which was replicated across two studies. Using the CASMS, I found evidence for the mediating role of impelling (but not inhibiting) cognitive appraisals in Study 2b, and replicated this effect in Study 3. Study 3 also explored the interplay between sexual arousal, perceived sexual intent, frontal alpha asymmetry (i.e., a neurophysiological correlate of motivation and affect), and sexual behaviour in response to a non-verbal indictor of non-consent. Results are in line with the theory that sexual arousal can increase perceived sexual intent, which in turn can increase the likelihood of sexual violence; however, future research is needed to formally test the mediating role of perceived sexual intent. Taken together, the results of this thesis suggest that sexual arousal has the potential to influence perceptions and appraisals of verbal and non-verbal cues in ways that impel rather than inhibit sexual behaviour. Notably, however, the relationship between sexual arousal and the psychological processes examined herein often differed as a function of assigned sex. The pattern of results observed for males and females throughout the current research appear consistent with the higher prevalence of sexual violence perpetrated by males/men. As such, the findings tentatively suggest that state empathy, impelling cognitive appraisals, and perceived sexual intent may be relevant targets for preventing sexual violence. Should these findings be substantiated in future research, the next step is to translate this knowledge into prevention initiatives. The empirical evidence and methodological developments presented in this thesis provide both an impetus and a foundation for further investigations into the psychological processes through which sexual arousal impacts sexual violence.